Wallenstein and the Dispute Over Territories: How the Thirty Years War Escalated

Summary

The Thirty Years War was a complex series of conflicts that started with religious disputes but quickly gained momentum as the interested parties sought to advance their political and strategic objectives. Despite opposition from Wallenstein, commander-in-chief of the imperial army, the Spanish Habsburgs declared the occupation of territories in Mantua and Montferrat by the Duke of Nevers illegal, resulting in a long siege of the fortress of Casale. In France, two royal assassinations created an anti-Protestant public mood that led to the suppression of the Huguenot political and military party. The conflict evolved from a religious issue to a political and diplomatic equation that was further complicated by the involvement of enterprisers, newspapers, and publications that fueled public opinion. The war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, marking the end of the war.

Table of Contents

• Wallenstein and the Dispute Over Territories
• Disbanding of the French Protestant Party
• Complexities of the Confessional Outlook of International Politics during the Thirty Years War
• Role of Newspapers and Other Publications during the Thirty Years War
• Legacy of Sweden’s Military Intervention

Q&A

Wallenstein was opposed to a proposed campaign in northern Italy. What triggered the mission he later had to comply with?

The death of Duke Vincenzo II Gonzaga and the dispute over his territories in Mantua and Montferrat created an opportunity for the Spanish Habsburgs to declare the occupation of the territories by the Duke of Nevers illegal. The Spanish forces ultimately seized the fortress of Casale, which created a stalemate that lasted for an extended period.

What was Wallenstein’s opposition to the campaign in northern Italy based on?

Wallenstein was unwilling to commit any further to military endeavors because of the fragile hold on northern Germany and the risk of a Hungarian attack.

Why did the French Protestant Party want assemblies and the integration of French Protestants into civil society?

The French Protestant Party believed that assemblies were necessary for the maintenance of peace and that electing deputies to represent their interests at the French court was required for their integration into civil society.

What led to the disbanding of the French Protestant Party?

Two royal assassinations in France created an anti-Protestant public mood, which led to the suppression of the Huguenot political and military party. The Protestant party in France was divided on how to best protect their interests, with some advocating negotiation and others advocating confrontation.

What was the legacy of Sweden’s military intervention in Germany?

Sweden’s military intervention in Germany created a complex legacy due to their population and resources being much smaller than their neighbors in the Baltic, like Poland and Russia. The mobilization of a significant proportion of Sweden’s adult male population through conscription allowed for a force that did not require a large sum of money, but they needed persuasion from their king to serve outside of Sweden.

Complexities of the Confessional Outlook of International Politics during the Thirty Years War

The period between 1630 and 1648 was dominated by the unintended consequences of the many attritional wars taking place across Europe. Failed sieges and the realignment of territories created exiled and dispossessed armies, mostly of Protestants. These armies were supplied and financed by enterprisers, which added to the complexity of the political, military, and diplomatic equations. Conflicts were no longer about any one issue and had given the lie that it was about the survival of Christendom. The confessional outlook of international politics came to the forefront in the 1620s, but this too did not last long. The divisions among Protestants were evident, while not all Catholics were committed to the struggle against Protestantism. Religion had become problematic due to the complex interests of the parties involved. With the international political equations and the interests of the various parties, it was tough to imagine how peace was going to be negotiated, and in what forum. Christendom’s international order no longer existed, and the mediation of the papacy was rejected by Protestant powers. The Reich’s Diet and other institutions were no longer in use, and the emperor was reluctant to unite the parties of the empire. Attempts at peace negotiations were made by Antoine Wolfath, bishop of Vienna and imperial councillor, in 1632, but the emperor was hesitant to agree, and separate compositions with individual powers were preferred. France’s declaration of war on Spain in 1635 prevented Louis XIII from participating in peace negotiations. In 1636, the papacy offered to mediate between the parties, but it did not occur as both sides wanted to continue the war to gain advantages. The Treaty of Hamburg in 1641 led to the Peace of Westphalia being signed in September 1648, marking the end of the war.

Role of Newspapers and Other Publications during the Thirty Years War

Newspapers and other publications had a significant impact on public opinion during the Thirty Years War. Regular printed gazettes emerged in the early seventeenth century, especially in Strasbourg and Frankfurt, and by 1648, there were thirty weekly papers in Europe. The newspapers provided up-to-date information, which was necessary for a public trying to make sense of complex events around them. Pamphlets and news encyclopedias also added to the publishing opportunities. All sides of the war used the press as an instrument not just of opinion, but of action, with each side having its own publicists advocating their motives for revolting or defending their actions. For instance, Protestant pamphlets appeared on the streets of Magdeburg before the city was siege in 1630, and they stigmatized the country’s enemies, suggesting it was better to die than to submit. By the end of the war, newspapers had become an established part of public life.

Conclusion

The Thirty Years War was a period of complex conflicts triggered ostensibly by religious disputes. However, the war quickly gained momentum as the interested parties sought to advance their political and strategic objectives. Attempts at peace negotiations were made, but it was difficult to imagine how peace was going to be negotiated with the international political equations and the interests of the various parties clashing. The newspapers played an essential role in shaping public opinion and provided up-to-date information that was necessary for a public caught up in complex events around them. Ultimately, the Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the war, which also introduced the principle of national sovereignty into European political thinking.